阅读理解（一）：A training or a learning specification is a product of job ysis. It breaks down the broad duties contained in the job description into the detailed tasks that must be carried out. It then sets out the characteristics or attributes that the individual should have perform these tasks successfully. These characteristics are: • Knowledge – what the individual needs to know. It may be professional, technical or commercial knowledge. Or it may be about the commercial, economic, or market environment; the machines to be operated; the materials or equipment to be used or the procedures to be followed; or the customers, s, colleagues and subordinates he or she is in contract with and the factors that affect their behavior. Or it may refer to the problems that occur and how they should be dealt with. • Skills – what the individual needs to be able to do if results are to be achieved and knowledge is to be used effectively, skills are built progressively by repeated training or other experience. They may be manual, intellectual or mental, perception or social. • Competences – the behaviors’ competences needed to achieve the levels of performance required. • Attitudes – the disposition to behave or to perform in a way that is in accordance with the requirements of the work. • Performance standards – what the fully competent individual has to be able to achieve. 3. According to this passage. The knowledge that individual should have in order to perform the task successfully may include the following except________.