Because research in education links to actions, and actions have consequences for others beyond the research, and because educational research often has to challenge popular beliefs founded in common experience, validity takes on a different importance. These factors are doubly applicable in teacher-research, since it can have immediate implications for actions taken in the classroom, and it can challenge common, status-quo assumptions in teaching and learning. Teacher-research has to be credible; it has to be valid. The need is present and it is real. But the question is, by what standards should this validity be assessed Because educational research in general and teacher-research in particular, still lack a coherent disciplinary community, the standards of validity are open to much discussion and debate. Further, given the consequences in action that such research can trigger, as well as the bases in common experience that it often must challenge, standards of validity must respond to the broadest common perceptions of what make the research worth believing.
Normative ideas of common standards for validity are based on generalized truth, that a finding will be "universally" true, and on replicability, that it can be applied in many, or even all, comparable situations. There are notions that spring from a positivist perspective on the world. However, as a philosophical orientation, positivism seeks universal statements and general rules of causality. The intent is to be able to say that X makes Y happen, " germs cause disease ", "the orientation of the earth to the sun causes the seasons", "access to oxygen makes a fire burn," and so on. In a positivist orientation, the aim of research is to show what cause certain things to happen under certain circumstances. According to the text, standards of validity ______.(本题选项不全，提供部分内容以参考供)
A. come from...
B. are under...
C. ...negative...
D. have been...